examples of biennial weeds

All rights reserved. CC BY 2.0. The ligule is a short fringe of hairs and the auricles are absent. Weeds, like any other plant, require light, moisture, nutrients, and a suitable substrate for growth. They grow from 8 to 28 inches tall. Seeds may germinate shortly after being shed or may have mechanisms to prevent germination until conditions (sunlight, water, and temperature) are conducive to germination and growth. Some factors affecting chemical management include the following: Herbicide injury to plants can often be traced to application of the wrong herbicide for the site, improper application, or application under less than optimum conditions. Read more about what defines a monocot or dicot plant in Botany, chapter 3. It is mostly used on non-crop areas; however, it is used selectively for the control of weeds among sugar cane, pineapples, and rangeland forage. It spreads by seed, and is found throughout North America. Dandelions (Taraxacum officinale) get a bad rap. The leaves are hairy on both surfaces. Forest and Kim Starr, Flickr Note: Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica), an invasive plant of the Southeast, is often confused with two native vines in our area: Carolina jessamine (Gelsemium sempervirens) and coral honeysuckle (Lonicera sempervirens). For example, nutsedge tubers planted one every square foot on an acre of land can produce over 3 million plants and 4 million tubers in one season. In how large an area? In addition, the plant may be toxic throughout its life cycle or only at certain stages. Examples of biennial plants are parsley, Lunaria, silverbeet, sweet William, colic weed, and carrot. The flower is a compressed cluster of bright yellow flowers in the shape of a globular spike on short branches. Red sorrel can survive in very alkaline soils as well. There are two types of annual weeds. It is September, and the goal is to eliminate grass growing in a flower bed (Figure 619). Forest and Kim Starr, Jerry Kikhurt, and John Tan, Flickr Both species have a long, jagged membranous ligule and have no auricles. You may want to divide the iris plants. Foxglove, hollyhocks, and forget-me-notsare common biennial flowers often grown in flower beds. But weeds such as bermudagrass, johnsongrass, or goldenrod can be reduced by tilling during the winter and exposing the underground reproductive structures to freezing temperatures. Winter wheat is a biennial plant that requires vernalization to produce grains. Clumping-type bamboos can be removed by digging up the plants. Common burdock, common mullein, henbit, moth mullein, poison hemlock, Queen Anne's lace, ragwort, tansy, teasel and white cockle are examples of biennial weeds. Use adapted plants and cultivars, maintain adequate soil fertility, plant at the proper date, and seed or plant at the correct depth and rate. Use good cultural practices to prevent the spread of summer annual weeds. No herbicide is safe for all horticultural plantsalways read the label carefully. But if the debris is not fully composted, many weeds can be introduced to garden or landscape beds. No one should ever put any part of a plant in his or her mouth unless the plant has first been identified as edible. They also help prevent soil erosion and maintain soil moisture levels. Brooklyn, New York: Brooklyn Botanic Garden, 1996. Leaves are compound pinnate with four to eight pairs of hairy leaflets. That is, biennials will experience at least one frost or winter before completing a full life cycle. Once introduced to a site, weeds can spread rapidly, and they are remarkably persistent. Other herbicides affect root growth, and the casual observer usually notices only a more generalized decline of the plants. Examples include: wandering willie, chilean rhubarb, wild ginger and pampas grass. After harvesting, wash weeds with slightly cool, soapy water and rinse thoroughly before eating them. Do not aerate after a pre-emergent herbicide application. Additional species will be added over time. Weeds of the Northeast. Before applying herbicide, cut off vines at ground level, and, if possible, use a mower or string trimmer to cut patches to ground level during the growing season so that root crowns are visible. A crabgrass plant which needs warm soils and sunlight can produce 150,000 seeds. Weeds can be disposed of in a variety of ways. The blade contains hairs near the ligule. Contact herbicides affect only the portion of the green plant tissue that is directly contacted by the spray solution. The kind of hoe selected affects the success rate in controlling weeds. Examples of biennial plants are members of the onion family including leek, [4] some members of the cabbage family, [4] common mullein, parsley, fennel, [4] Lunaria, silverbeet, black-eyed Susan, sweet William, colic weed, carrot, [4] and some hollyhocks. Sometimes it is confused with Johnson grass or barnyard grass, but fall panicum has a hairy ligule. 1. Year 1: Start seeds or seedlings Year 2: Last year's biennials will bloom, then go to seed. Germination occurs when soil temperatures consistently reach 55 degrees F and is generally killed at the first frost. Here are some guidelines for eating weeds: Serious illness or even death can result when poisonous weeds are eaten. The difference between contact and systemic, selective and nonselective herbicides. Weed seeds can be carried in on clothing, shoes, or tools, or brought in by gardening activities such as cultivation, mowing, or adding topsoil or compost. Clean equipment after each use because weed seeds can be moved on rototillers and mowers. CC BY 2.0, Mcleay Grass Man, Flickr Other herbicides have little or no persistence in the soil (see the North Carolina Agricultural Chemicals Manual for additional information). Biennials have a two-year life cycle: in the first year a basal rosette (circular cluster of prostrate leaves) is produced, in the second year a central flowering stalk elongates, and the plant dies after seed maturation. It grows in nearly all crops and landscape settings; has grasslike, glossy, light-green leaves; and has yellow to tan seed heads; it spreads by rhizomes and produces tubers at the tips of rhizomes. The fruit is an achene, which resembles a queens crown. In the first year seeds germinate and grow without flowering, forming what is called a rosette. Because there is much diversity among broadleaf weeds, accurate identification is necessary to select appropriate control procedures. Refer to Lawns, chapter 9, for recommendations. With dicamba injury, there is usually more cupping and less leaf strapping. Pigweed is actually toxic to pigs and cows. It has multi-branched red stems that root at the nodes wherever they contact the soil surface. Not many biological weed management options are readily available to a home gardener. The leaves are distinctly folded in the bud and may be smooth or have a few sparse hairs at the base of the leaf. There were a few blades of grass in the iris bed last year, but this summer the grass is coming on strong. CC BY 2.0, Forest and Kim Starr, Flickr Other weed species grow more rapidly than surrounding vegetation, such as some pigweeds that grow at twice the rate of most garden plants. No single herbicide or management method will control all weeds. Some winters are very mild or have fluctuating temperatures. Integrated Pest Management Strategies for Summer Annual Weeds. Under those conditions, bermudagrass never goes completely dormant. Ragweed (Ambrosia artemisifolia) is a summer annual that produces pollen. CC BY 2.0, Tony Fischer, Flickr These materials are rarely appropriate for use in urban areas and should be used only with extreme caution. On-site sanitation is another effective cultural control method. Preemergence herbicides are effective in controlling most annual grasses and some small-seeded broadleaf weeds. Young tender weeds are usually less bitter than mature weeds. Weeds of Arkansas Lawns, Turf, Roadsides, Recreation Areas: A Guide to Identification. Figure 611. Gray Summit, MO 63039. For example, a seed germinates and creates a leafy plant in the first year, and then the plant flowers the following year, producing seeds, which begin the plant's new life cycle. Figure 615. Teas can be made from dried flowers, leaves, or roots. The seed head is a single spike with 6 to 20 rounded burs which contain 2 seeds in each bur. It is very difficult to pull out. State and federal laws regulate the presence of certain weed species in crop seeds. If the bamboo is encroaching from an adjacent area, install a root-barrier 12 to 18 inches deep. Last entry at 4:30 p.m. Closed Mondays. Wild carrot and poison hemlock are on the Iowa noxious weed list. Wear rubber gloves; wipe the entire shoot with a sponge dampened with herbicide. If weeds are added to compost piles, turn the pile frequently to disturb and kill any weed seedlings. Goosegrass germinates about two weeks later than smooth crabgrass. To control early in the season, use a pre-emergent herbicide as soon as soil temperatures reach 55 degrees F for a period of four days about the time forsythia blooms. CC BY-SA 4.0, F.D. Cooperative Extension prohibits discrimination and harassment regardless of age, color, disability, family and marital status, gender identity, national origin, political beliefs, race, religion, sex (including pregnancy), sexual orientation and veteran status. Option 2. Hand-pulling weeds is the safest option for surrounding plants, but you need to be sure to get the entire root of the weed. Prostrate spurge forms dense mats with its stems radiating out from a shallow taproot. For example, mints spread (by rhizomes) several feet per year and are easier to manage if planted in containers. Many of our most common weeds were accidentally introduced with crop plants our ancestors brought to this country. There are 10 pigweeds ( Amaranthus) identified through the corn belt area: redroot, smooth, rough pigweed, Powell, tumble, prostrate, spiny, tall, sandhill and another one. The roots are fibrous. Control bermudagrass with a nonselective herbicide. A rosette is a plant form with no central stalk. It grows up to 5 tall. Plant-spacing techniques can also reduce weeds. A perennial life cycle means that a weed regrows season after season. It has a showy flower. Dandelions have many positive features, including these: Mechanical management is used to kill weeds directly or to make the environment unsuitable for them. Wednesday, February 1 - Thursday, August 31, Member Speaker Series: Curating Our Living Collections. In general, broadleaf herbicide (synthetic auxin) injury appears as a strapping of the leaf with veins becoming parallel or close together. Sandbur seeds catch on clothing and animal fur and the barbed burs can easily pierce the skin and cause injury to livestock and people. Vegetative identification of unknown grasses relies on a few structures: leaf bud (folded or rolled), ligule (absent, hairy, or membranous), auricles (absent or present), hairs on the leaf blade or sheath and growth habit (clump-type or spreading by stolons or rhizomes) (Figure 68). A cover crop like clover, vetch, or annual ryegrass between garden rows (Figure 613) helps reduce weed seed germination and competes with weeds that do germinate. Weeds of the North Central States. When lambsquarter is abundant, it is reported to cause hay fever symptoms. Perennial landscape weeds include hedge bindweed, yellow nutsedge, quackgrass (witchgrass) and red sorrel.Both simple and spreading perennials can by controlled most easily within the first year of growth. Figure 620. They store food reserves in the leaves and roots the first year, and produce flowers and seed the second. Start more seeds or seedlings to bloom next year. Over time landscape plastics can degrade, become unsightly, and allow weeds to come through. Gorse seed has been known to last for at least 20 years in the soil. The table below summarizes . Pleasant, Barbara. It is difficult to remove when it is growing in an unwanted location. If the weed seedling can be seen, it is too late to apply a preemergence herbicide. CC BY 2.0. Nutsedge can also be reduced by tilling and leaving the tubers exposed during the month of August when new tubers are normally formed. During the second year, biennial weeds flower, produce seeds, and die. The flowers, which consist of 5 petals, produce hard, spiny, five-lobed fruit. When did you first notice grass in the iris bed? Where herbicides are used, correct identification of a weed becomes even more critical because no herbicide kills all plants. It has a shallow taproot. Weeds can become invasive in new environments where they have no natural predators, but weeds often have natural enemies that keep their populations in check in their place of origin. Their image is featured on many herbicide labels, and homeowners go to great lengths to eradicate them. See also annual; perennial. It is softly hairy and the seeds are 1/16 of an inch. Purslane is common to disturbed soil, new seedlings, sidewalk crevices and mulched planting beds. Hand-weeding may be an option. But in North Carolina, it usually does not produce temperatures high enough to control weeds effectively. It is best to apply a systemic herbicide in the fall when the plant is moving nutrients to its roots. All leaves in a rosette arise from close to the soil surface, as in thistle. It grows quickly, especially in thin turf. commitment to diversity. After killing any weeds, avoid disturbing the soil to prevent weed seeds from germinating. Cultural managementMulching prevents bermudagrass seedlings from establishing but will not prevent bermudagrass from reestablishing via rhizomes or stolons left in the soil. Tender, highly nutritious leaves can be sauted and eaten like spinach. So, what makes weeds so weedy? Weed species have developed a variety of ways to outcompete other plants for resources, including light, water, nutrients, and physical space. A broad-spectrum systemic herbicide is translocated to the rhizomes and roots. It then grows through the summer and produces seeds in mid-to-late summer. The difference is in the flower. Perennial weeds that reproduce exclusively by seed are called "simple perennials." Cultural and Mechanical Management. Figure 64. During the first growing season, biennials produce roots, stems, and leaves. The inflorescence is often the length of the entire plant. The label is the best reference on how to use an herbicide effectively and safely. Preemergence herbicides are not effective on bermudagrass from rhizomes or stolons but will control bermudagrass from seed. In addition to sexually reproducing by seeds, many weeds reproduce asexually via tubers, corms, bulbs, and stem and leaf rooting. Any piece of the bermudagrass left in the soil can produce a whole new plant. Figure 619. Allow vines to resprout. See also: Examples of perennial plants; Examples of biennial plants; Examples of vascular plants The UC IPM Weed Photo Gallery includes many, but not all, weed species commonly found in California farms and landscapes. This group of weeds contains some real baddies. If chemical treatment is deemed necessary to control perennial weeds, early fall is the optimal time of year to control many weeds with, As one of the first plants to bloom in the spring, the dandelion provides nectar and pollen to honeybees and other beneficial insects. Weeds of the South. Plants growing low to the ground can still produce burs. A chopping hoe may be the only practical tool if the soil is rocky. L.K. There are 10 pigweeds (Amaranthus) identified through the corn belt area: redroot, smooth, rough pigweed, Powell, tumble, prostrate, spiny, tall, sandhill and another one. Hand-pulling weeds as they appear is an effective, but only temporary, way of controlling annual weeds. Injury often occurs within several days, but symptoms may take several weeks to appear. Weeds have seeds that stay viable for a long time. Edible weeds can be enjoyed in a variety of ways. BIENNIAL WEEDS. Weeds can also offer clues that point to poor management of a garden or lawn (Table 64). If you desire to plant bamboo in the landscape, hedge bamboo (Bambusa multiplex) is a tall, tightly clumping bamboo species that can be grown in our area. Contact herbicides can be selective or nonselective. Biological managementNo recommended strategies exist. Mechanical managementPhysically removing as much of the bermudagrass from the iris bed as possible reduces the bermudagrass population. If morningglories are planted, locate them away from the vegetable garden or flower beds. This publication printed on: March 04, 2023. For example, horseweed is a winter annual that can germinate in the fall or the spring. But spray carefully. You research bermudagrass and find it grows above and below the ground by stolons and rhizomes and it also reproduces by seed. Dandelions thrive in sunny environments and can be found in the United States and Europe. For the majority of weeds, however, an integrated management approachwith a goal of managing rather than eradicating weedsis most appropriate. Shallots are an example of a biennial plant. Sedges are particularly important to identify because many herbicides and cultural procedures that are effective on grassy weeds do not control sedges. Growth habit can be a useful characteristic in identifying weeds. Leaves form whorls containing 3-8 leaves. The root of lambsquarter is a short, branched taproot. 3. Time any management procedures to reduce the production of overwintering reproductive plant parts and to attack the weed at its most susceptible growth stages. Nutsedge, bermudagrass, quackgrass, and Canadian thistle do not lose their viability until their moisture content drops below 20%. The TurfFiles website at NC State contains an online key to help identify weeds and grasses, as well as weed profiles with images, descriptions, and management recommendations. Most postemergence herbicides are systemic but, as previously noted, some have only contact action. Replant the iris rhizomes, and then mulch the bed to control annual weeds from seed (Figure 620). These burs can injure people and animals and can damage bike and car tires. A healthy lawn can outcompete many weeds. Many mulching materials have not been completely composted and may contain weed propagules. Use chemical herbicides. A healthy lawn outcompetes most weeds, so one option would be to wait until spring and encourage the lawn to come out of dormancy with proper irrigation and fertilization. Emily May, Flickr Lambsquarter spreads by black seeds that germinate in the late spring to early summer. Fertilizer placed in bands near desired plants instead of broadcast widely helps the desired plants grow without promoting weeds. The dispersal of these seeds is one of the great milestones of childhood. Maintain a dense actively growing turf through proper mowing, fertilizing and watering practices. . Some postemergence herbicides are temperature sensitive. The seed can be dormant for 50 years. Non-vascular plants play a critical role in maintaining the ecosystem. In contrast to preemergence herbicides, the majority of postemergence herbicides do not provide residual control; that is, they control emerged weeds only and do not prevent weeds from emerging afterwards. Information identifying which plants an herbicide may be used on and which weeds it will control is listed on the label and in the. Diagnosis of herbicide injury is often difficult at best. The flowers are small pink to white and form in clusters in the leaf axis. It prefers rich moist soils, but it can establish itself in dry, sandy soil. This strategy is best used in established lawns or planting beds. The type of weeds growing in an area can help you to identify soil conditions. Copyright 2018 - 2022 by Missouri Botanical Garden. For thickets, cut all stems to the ground with a mower or string trimmer. Purple nutsedge is usually smaller and deeper green than yellow nutsedge, has reddish-purple seed heads, and produces "chains" of tubers on rhizomes. Chemical management of weeds relies on the use of herbicides. Products can be added to herbicides or pesticides that can improve their performance. Eating weeds from your yard can motivate you to weed and take advantage of growing food that does not require planting, watering, or fertilizing. Although the application at labeled rates do not completely kill semidormant bermudagrass, it may delay spring green-up. Perennial types - Perennial weeds return every year and normally produce long tap roots in addition to seeds. If greater than 80% of the soil surface is shaded, weeds seldom become a problem. Herbicides can also carry over in manure. Weed management consists of limiting weed infestations so that other plants can grow efficiently. Gently remove the soil and pieces of grass from the rhizomes to ensure the grass parts will not be transplanted elsewhere. However, by integrating cultural, mechanical, biological, and chemical methods into a weed management system, the goal of growing a relatively weed-free, aesthetically pleasing landscape or productive garden may be realized. The Gardener's Weed Book: Earth-Safe Controls. This spurge (left) growing along the ground, is an example of prostrate growth form. Solitary yellow flowers with 5 petals will only open with sunny conditions from May to September. Rototillers can be used to destroy small weeds in row middles. The seeds can sit in the soil for years. If mechanical vine control is impractical, you may still spray the honeysuckle with an herbicide, but remember that any other desirable species in the area will likely be injured. Another helpful guide to poisonous plants is Plants Poisonous to Livestock and Pets in North Carolina, Bulletin Number 414, available through NC State Extension. The ligule is a fringe of hairs. Marinelli, Janet, ed. The challenge lies in timing the application so the temperature is warm enough but the bermudagrass is still dormant. Wax, L. M., R. S. Fawcett, and D. Isely. The seeds are attached in a zipper appearance on the spike. 1. In shady or irrigated landscapes or in cooler mountain regions, soil temperatures stay cool, allowing some winter annual weeds (such as chickweed) to germinate and grow during summer. It is covered with hairs. There are papery sheath or ocrea at each node that give the stems a knotted or swollen appearance. They germinate when the right environmental conditions prevail. Edge the bed with a contact herbicide to prevent encroachment from the adjacent lawn area. A benefit to using biological management versus broad-spectrum herbicides is its relative safety and low impact on the environment. Similarly, the root systems of some weed species are quicker to claim space in the soil. It may not be obvious, however, that anything is happening. The ligule is toothed and membranous with a cut in the center. Gainesville, Florida: University Of Florida Institute Of Food And Agricultural Science, 2004. Give desirable plants a competitive advantage over weeds by providing the best possible growing conditions. Culms are erect or spreading at the base. It germinates when soil temperatures reach 65 degrees. The entire plant may be poisonous, or the toxins may be confined to only specific parts (leaves, roots, fruit, or seeds). According to origin: Alien (foreign in origin): Argemone mexicana (Shialkata - Mexico), Eichhornia crassipes (Kachuripana - Germany). Chesterfield, MO 63017, 307 Pinetum Loop Rd, It is light green in color, the leaves are lanceolate in shape, widest in the middle and narrow at tip and base. Selective systemic herbicides are most effective when applied during times of active vegetative growth when the poison is most effectively translocated throughout the plant. Cover crops planted when an area is not in production also limit weed growth. Sow in late summer and the plants start to bloom earlier the following season and flower far more prolifically than those sown in spring. It is best to apply a chemical when the grass is actively growing. A surfactant is a type of adjuvant that helps enhance the herbicides dispersion (spreading), adhesion (sticking), and plant tissue penetration. They are hollow, and pubescent at the nodes. In addition, weeds that do germinate under mulch may die because they do not have enough stored energy in their seeds to enable them to grow through 3 inches of mulch to reach sunlight and produce leaves. Beetroots Brussels sprouts Cabbages Caraways Carrots Onions Seedlings have either one or two cotyledons, and plants are termed monocots (one cotyledon) and dicots (two cotyledons). 6. The best hoes (Figure 616) for weeding are the scuffle hoe and the onion hoe (also called the tobacco hoe). Drawings of leaf margins and orientation are provided in Botany, chapter 3, of this handbook. Prone to put everything in their mouths, children are particularly attracted to colorful berries and seeds. A threshold is the point at which action should be taken. Flowers are formed in the leaf axils. ), Young leaves (must be cooked thoroughly or dried for tea) and seeds, Black medic, chamberbitter, lespedeza, prostrate knotweed, spurge, Cocklebur, lambsquarters, pigweed, prostrate knotweed, prostrate spurge, purslane, ragweed, Carpetweed, chamberbitter, mulberry weed, sida, spurge, Virginia copperleaf, Crabgrass, goosegrass, Japanese stiltgrass, Asiatic hawksbeard, bittercress, chickweed, henbit, horseweed, lawn burweed, speedwell, vetch, Asiatic hawksbeard, bittercress, Carolina geranium, chickweed, common groundsel, henbit, horseweed, shepherd's purse, sowthistle, speedwell, vetch, Aster, curly dock, dandelion, dogfennel, plantain, Virginia buttonweed, wild violet, Dandelion, dogfennel, pokeweed, Virginia buttonweed, wild violet, English ivy, Japanese honeysuckle, poison ivy, smilax, wisteria, Broomsedge, Carolina geranium, red sorrel, Appear pale and stunted: chickweed, dandelion, redroot pigweed, wild mustard, Acceptable to most weeds, including jimsonweed and morning glory, Appear lush and green: chickweed, dandelion, redroot pigweed, wild mustard, Annual bluegrass, annual lespedeza, annual sedge, broadleaf plantain, corn speedwell, goosegrass, prostrate knotweed, prostrate spurge, Alligatorweed, annual bluegrass, liverwort, moneywort, moss, pearlwort, rushes, sedges, Annual lespedeza, birdsfoot trefoil, black medic, goosegrass, bracted plantain, prostrate knotweed, spotted spurge, yellow woodsorrel, Biennial and perennial weeds, such as aster, brambles, chicory, dogfennel, goldenrod, thistle, and wild carrot, Annual bluegrass, chickweed, crabgrass, goosegrass, Winter annual weeds, such as henbit, horseweed, and pepperweed, Reduced plant growth and vigor while producing no other acute symptoms, Causes include low doses of herbicides sprayed over the top of plants when new growth is present, poor drainage, root-feeding insects, competition from weeds, low fertility, and water stress; look for untreated plants growing in similar conditions and carefully evaluate all potential causes, Feathering of leaves; strap-shaped leaves, Leaf malformations are induced by translocated herbicides, Fiddlenecking in young growing points of plants; upward curling of older leaves, Symptoms are produced by growth-hormone herbicides, Distinct cupping (usually upward) is caused by growth-hormone herbicides; also may be caused by root uptake of ALS-inhibitor herbicides, Crinkling of leaves; in grass species such as corn, leaves fail to emerge normally from the sheath and the plant remains in a stunted condition with twisted and crinkled leaves, Injury symptom on grasses can be caused by an herbicide but is more commonly caused by leaf-rolling arthropod pests, Tip chlorosis (yellowing in the actively growing regions of plants); chlorotic areas may appear yellow, white, or pinkish, Veinal chlorosis (yellowing of leaf veins), Usually results from root uptake of herbicides, lnterveinal chlorosis (yellowing of tissues between leaf veins), Typically is caused by root uptake of herbicides but is also caused by some nutrient disorders, such as Fe deficiency, Marginal chlorosis (a narrow, yellow band almost entirely around the leaf margin; sometimes called a "halo effect"), Can be caused by root or foliar uptake of herbicides, Rarely associated with herbicide injury; sometimes preemergence herbicides applied over very young plant tissues can cause puckering and mottled leaves in susceptible species such as hydrangea, heuchera, and Euonymus alatus compacta; may also be injury from foliar nematodes, White tissue; results from loss of all pigments (cartenoids and chlorophyll); tissues may be white or yellowish-white, often with pink on the leaf margins, Several herbicides labeled for use in turf may cause these symptons; some bacterial infections may mimic these symptoms, >An overdose of a herbicide can cause these symptoms, Necrosis occurring in small spots scattered through the leaf, Response often occurs within a few hours after exposure to growth-hormone herbicides, Stem elongation of broadleaved plants may be enhanced (at low concentration) or inhibited (at high concentrations) by growth-hormone herbicides, Stem cracking; stems become brittle and may break off in heavy winds; stems often crack near the soil line, Symptoms are typical of injury from growth-regulator herbicides, Can be caused by growth-hormone herbicides, Caused by growth-hormone herbicides; also a common result of stem girdling at the soil line (resulting in stem swelling above the soil line), Changes in size, shape, or arrangement of various flower parts; branched flowers; multiple spikelets; some spikelets missing; flower partly or completely enclosed in the leaf; opposite instead of alternating spikelets along the rachis (axis of an, Usually caused by growth-hormone herbicides; delay in flowering due to herbicide injury is common, Changes in size, shape, and appearance of fruit or abortion of fruit, Often associated with growth-regulator-type herbicides, spray drift or misapplication of contact-type herbicides, Development of primary and/or lateral roots is inhibited; thickened and shortened roots; usually leads to stunting of plants, Some herbicides are effective inhibitors of root growth; growth-hormone herbicides may cause swelling of roots in some plants.

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