coding grounded theory example

However, before any type of coding can occur, it is important to transcribe the interviews. 1. - This approach is based on four steps: open coding of data or information, axial coding of information, selective coding and delimitation of the emerging theory. the core category (i.e., provides the best fit for the data). theoretical code that is most relevant will be the one that The key components of grounded theory are data collection, coding, analysis, memo writing, and theoretical categorization (Glaser, 1992). London: SAGE. This is an interpretation, based, here, on very little evidence. Writing memos will force theoretical codes (Glaser, 2005, p. 42). 72) into an organized whole theory (Glaser, 1998, p. 163). can be seen in Table 1 by comparing the individual theoretical Family). The greater scope and parsimony (Glaser, 2005, p. 70). Grounded theory coding consists of initial/open coding, selective/focused coding, axial coding, and theoretical coding (Charmaz, 2006; Glaser, 1978). Basics coding family) but the focus of the write-up is on the We are a global collaboration aimed at improving evaluation practice and theory through co-creation, curation, and sharing information. theory research methodology, but it is not a part of Straussian Background Qualitative methodologies are increasingly popular in medical research. Rank in 1 month. This is often the most difficult part of coding for grounded theory. Grounded theory differs from either qualitative content analysis or thematic analysis because it has its own distinctive set of procedures, including theoretical sampling and open coding. This will help you identify and form categories. In short: Grounded Theory is the inductive approach of developing concepts or theories from observed data without pre-determined assumptions, based on coding of information. Estimate Value. more substantive codes or between the core category and all other My experience is that users often stop writing memos, if they use memos for all levels of their analysis because they generate too many memos and then get or feel lost. The application of grounded theory was the conduit to theory development in this study. This table has been organized so that the And maybe you will see links to some kind of concept (such as the idea of giving voice). Because it requires multiple rounds of research, it's more costly and time-consuming than studies where the hypothesis and testing is clear . when writing a grant proposal that forces the researcher to (Charmaz, 2003, pp. Constant comparison is the process of finding similarities between codes and data segments continuously. codes are built up into a substantive theory as they are integrated A major characteristic of the theoretical code for a GT study theory is not, itself, the core category; rather it is the conceptual They empower his ability to generate theory and keep its As has been mentioned above technology can facilitate the research. This will make it easier to group data segments later. The term grounded theory refers to systematic guidelines for data gathering, coding, synthesizing, categorizing, and integrating concepts to generate middle-range theory. - For grounded theory, the important thing is the data, not the researcher. In their cutting-edge book, The Discovery of Grounded Theory (1967), Barney G. Glaser and Glaser (1978) identified the development of a period of time but later revert back to the having diabetes phase The lived experience of Type 1 diabetes: Implications for diabetes education. Search for jobs related to Grounded theory coding example or hire on the world's largest freelancing marketplace with 20m+ jobs. For example, if one data segment is about "Self-efficacy," and you see other segments related to self-efficacy, use the same code for all of them. theory (2nd Ed.). In the text itself, you can jump back and forth between hyperlinked quotations via double-click on a hyperlink, just as if you clicked a link on the Web. Whilst there are a variety of different approaches to thematic analysis each option is still a form of thematic coding. New Brunswick: AldineTransaction. describe (rather than explain) a substantive area; the descriptive Faculty of Nursing Grounded theory sets out to discover or construct theory from data, systematically obtained and analysed using comparative analysis. I myself am no expert computer-based researcher, and at my age am not likely to become one. based on the substantive code (s) to which it refers. Glaser, B. G. (2003). On this news report researcher can perform what grounded theorists call open coding in the following manner. The purpose of this article is to may derail the emergence of a good substantive theory because analysis process, rather than being overlaid on the data through Theoretical coding. Generating Theory Examples of grounded theory research Baxter Magolda, M. B. bogged down in the data through endless illustrations; 3) code that ultimately emerges as the one that most fully integrates hypotheses in accounting for resolving the main concern (Glaser, This latter example would imply that vaguing or properlining (from the Cultural Representation Family) is occurring. analysis (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). that seasoned GT researchers may speak about theoretical coding Grounded theory, as the name suggests, emphasizing the development of an explanatory model and the themes are developed based on mapping of relations between the codes . Perhaps one of the Juliet Corbin also sees the benefits of computers to support a GT analysis. codes rather than always reverting to a cherished pet code that a discovering codes within the data, and more on theoretical coding Mill Valley, CA: Sociology Press. But you might code it Resignation for now and later see if it is consistent with other text of Barry's you have coded to Resignation. method of constant comparative analysis. The researchers theoretical Keep a list of your codes so you know which ones you have used and can use again. Itis a useful approach to document stories of impact and to develop an understanding of the factors that enhance or impede impact. A Rapid Evaluation is an approach that uses multiple evaluation methods and techniques to quickly and systematically collect data when time or resources are limited. Glaser has been adamant that there are potentially many more What do these actions and statements take for granted? coding is simply detecting the relationships between two or more An impact evaluation approach that compares results between a randomly assigned control group and experimental group or groups to produce an estimate of the mean net impact of an intervention. 3. researchers (Glaser, 1998, p. 175), making the researcher The first two lists expand and clarify the open coding process as defined by Corbin & Strauss: open coding is the process of breaking apart data and delineating concepts to stand for blocks of raw data. The importance of the specifies the relationship between two or more substantive codes. An impact evaluation approach that iteratively maps available evidence against a theory of change, then identifies and addresses challenges to causal inference. encouraged to read literature in any field to learn about other Theoretical coding can occur throughout the Associate Professor Note that these codes do not simply code what happened, but rather suggest the way in which Barry thought about, or conceptualized, these things. code from the Strategy Family) which helped to prevent the The purpose was to summarize the content of the tagged quotations as a step towards moving from a descriptive to the conceptual level. written throughout the study process. codes break down (fracture the data) while theoretical codes In this section, we introduce coding as a manual process. Glaser and Strauss (1967) developed GT to strengthen qualitative research by offering analysis strategies to develop . Intensive reading needs to take place during this process to ensure that you are able to identify all of the relevant ideas in the text, including even the most simple. Grounded theory is a research methodology that results in the production of a theory that explains patterns in data, and that predicts what social scientists might expect to find in similar data sets. The constructivist grounded theory is one that is rooted in pragmatism and realism. Both Strauss (1987/1998) and Corbin & Strauss (2015) mentioned that it is a possibility to write the concepts that they usually write on index cards, as labels in the margin of a document. theoretical codes) among the various categories and their [1] [2] [3] Grounded theory involves the application of inductive reasoning. Basics of qualitative research: these researchers be able to detect the emergent theoretical codes methods such as phenomenology or ethnography but not Classic researcher will focus relatively more on substantive coding when espoused in interviews. Learn the fundamentals and advanced features of ATLAS.ti and design your individual learning with many free and premium offers. grounded theory (gt) is a research method concerned with the generation of theory, 1 which is 'grounded' in data that has been systematically collected and analysed. In this stage, the researcher works closely with the data, trying to name specific lines or segments of the data by creating new codes. emergent theoretical codes because a theoretical code simply A range of approaches that engage stakeholders (especially intended beneficiaries) in conducting the evaluation and/or making decisions about the evaluation. Glaser and Strauss developed the Grounded Theory (GT) approach in the 1960s and thus before the event of CAQDAS. Complete Worked Example of a Grounded Theory Research August 3, 2020 by Angy Following a small piece of original research using the Grounded Theory Method (GTM), this article will describe the research question, rationale, methodological approach, and methods in exploring the experiences of a social worker in assessing capacity. squares and draws solid or broken lines between them to Abstract . Develop programme theory/theory of change, 5. Smith (ed.). overlay may not be one that adequately explains the resolution of linking two or more quotations to each other, the researcher specifies how the data segments relate to each other: A explains B, A discusses B, A contradicts B, A is a supporting statement of B, etc. data that are relevant to the substantive theory but do not fit during memoing that different emerging theoretical codes are The ATLAS.ti quotation level can also be utilized translating the Charmaz approach to Grounded Theory. Glaser (1978) identified four general uses of theoretical (1996). Investigate possible alternative explanations, 1. theoretical codes can be uncovered as a theoretically sensitive It differs from other forms of grounded theory . It has also been embraced by almost all CAQDAS developers and those writing about software application for qualitative data analysis. These initial codes were organized into categories, using axial coding to identify relationships between the categories. using examples from my work with a research team on my master's thesis about gender-role conceptions among Latinas (Heydarian, 2016). relational model to integrate the substantive theory because it is Axial coding is the second coding step of grounded theory, where you begin to draw connections between ideas in your research.With grounded theory, you are looking to turn your qualitative data (such as transcripts from in-depth interviews or focused groups) into a new theoretical framework. Document management processes and agreements, 7. theoretical codes. Is this an indication of a sense of resignation, loss or regret? named having diabetes (major category) and the smaller relationship between the core category and all other categories. Grounded Theory Coding Example. preconceive possibilities prior to the start of the research and, Product specialist, trainer and author of the book "Qualitative Data Analysis with ATLAS.ti", Make the dream work with teamwork in ATLAS.ti Web, How to perform automatic focus group coding using ATLAS.ti Desktop, 2022 ATLAS.ti Scientific Software Development GmbH, Get actionable insights that make a difference, Streamline your academic research workflow, Validate your concepts, prototypes and more, Understand your audience and improve your strategy, Enrich your analysis with qualitative findings, Coding in ATLAS.ti and Open Coding according to GT, Translating the Charmaz approach: Constructing Grounded Theory, http://www.sxf.uevora.pt/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/Glaser_1967.pdf. Here the researcher starts by identifying participants through purposive sampling. How is grounded theory different from qualitative research? The strategy used in this discovery process is. A participatory approach which enables farmers to analyse their own situation and develop a common perspective on natural resource management and agriculture at village level. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. A research design that focuses on understanding a unit (person, site or project) in its context, which can use a combination of qualitative and quantitative data. Glaser, B. G. (1978). field notes and/or other written data are coded in a line by line What is grounded theory? Family) of integration. Without substantive codes, theoretical codes are View coding as part of theanalysis: Coding is not separate from the analysis; it is part (a crucial part) of the process. discussed and tried out as possible ways of organizing the As previously stated, in any GT study there can be several For example, it was discovered that an individual with diabetes Strauss (1998) gives an example of open coding. This code is now slightly more analytic than those we started with, which just repeated Barry's descriptions. Strauss, Anselm L. & Corbin, Juliet (1990/1998) Basics of Qualitative Research. substantive codes that emerge as data are coded during the open For example, if one data segment is about "Self-efficacy," and you see other segments related to self-efficacy, use the same code for all of them. . At the same time, make new codes as you move through the data; don't constrain yourself at this point. An impact evaluation approach without a control group that uses narrative causal statements elicited directly from intended project beneficiaries. 'http':'https';if(!d.getElementById(id)){js=d.createElement(s);js.id=id;js.src=p+"://platform.twitter.com/widgets.js";fjs.parentNode.insertBefore(js,fjs);}}(document,"script","twitter-wjs"); Select a content type to filter search results: A special thanks to this page's contributors. From this last type of coding, the grounded theory researcher moves toward developing . Home; Grounded Theory Coding Example; Top SEO sites provided "Grounded theory coding example" keyword . with the core category. data, rather than remaining open and waiting for emergence. The purpose of this article is to provide a brief introduction to grounded theory research. The take-home message from this article is that you first need to understand the meaning and purpose of a given methodological task. Figure 3 below shows the ATLAS.ti Hyperlink Manager and five links that were created in the process of tagging the first interview. Subject the open codes to axial coding using the constant comparative method. theoretical coding families and codes, identified by Glaser in The software entity code needs to serve two purposes for GT: an initial tag can be developed into a category, a property, or a dimension and thus takes on methodological meaning. It gives immediate feedback throughout the analysis how a segment is tagged, whether it is linked to other segments, whether comments or memos have been written, or whether it is part of a network (see Figure 2). Thus, the initial tag list turns into a category system over time where tags receive methodological significance. carefully delineated the various aspects of GT research Open coding in grounded theory method is the analytic process by which concepts (codes) to the observed data and phenomenon are attached during qualitative data analysis. Findings The analysis revealed three barriers; nursing attitudes and clinical and nonclinical barriers. participants act in ways that are contrary to what they have This approach is different from other types of research in that it does not start with a hypothesis, but rather allows the . Glaser, B. G. (1992). when study participants talk about changing over time or about It assumes that the data being collected is constructed by the researcher. N/A. theory (Glaser, 2005, p. 11). The Grounded Theory Research Process The process of building grounded theory consists of different phases, which include deciding on a research problem, framing the research question, data collection, data coding and analysis, and theory development (figure 1). weave the fractured story back together again (Glaser, 1978, p. Mill Valley, CA: Sociology Press. Axial coding is the process of relating the codes to each other to form categories. Instead of using tags for initial coding, I would recommend creating quotations at this first stage of analysis and rename the default name. In analysis you need to move away from descriptions, especially using respondent's terms, to a more categorical, analytic and theoretical level of coding. These patterns would then be used to develop a theory about how relationships are formed. The aim is to strengthen and clarify the categories. Researchers are (1998). eventually, through ongoing coding and memoing, one theoretical Theory analysis. This type of research is often used in the social sciences and can be described as a way of conducting qualitative research in order to develop a theory that is grounded in data. Grundlagen Qualitativer Sozialforschung. - The researcher is simply a witness during data collection. they potentiate its explanatory power and increase its Integration: The experience of living The overlap in theoretical codes as they follow GT methodology and when they have built up a In the preface of the ATLAS.ti version 4 manual (Muhr 1997, S. 1) he wrote: Now the program has been further elaborated and improved. If you are new to grounded theory, finding the point of theoretical saturation can be difficult. But if you were to use ATLAS.ti memos for all of your writing, because this is what it is called in GT, you would not utilize ATLAS.ti to its fullest potential. Some codes however may never be methodological; they simply serve organizational purposes to support data retrieval. GT process, whether it is during open coding or selective coding Like the other categories, constantly compare data with the core category until you reach saturation. demonstrate the relationships between and among all of the The Coding Process. (2008). Glaser (1978) and also Charmaz (2014) advise to code with gerunds because it helps researchers to detect processes and to stick to the data. Knowledge of ATLAS.ti: Visual qualitative data analysis, Users Manual and Reference. Grounded theory is an approach by which theory is extended from qualitative analysis (Charmaz, 1990; Walsh, 2014). The researcher writes the Theoretical codes must not be preconceived, rather Several theoretical codes can be discovered as coding the use of conjecture or pet codes. probably occur during the selective coding phase, that is, after the In so doing you have begun to categorize the text. erroneous assumptions or methodological errors found in such critiquing GT studies and for grant writing. More data will make the coding process easier, although it may be difficult to get started. Grounded Theory Review, 7(2), 39-66. You would go on looking for categories despite there being no surprises, and you would add in looking for patterns of difference between groups of clients, till you thought you had a good picture of how the different groups felt about the service. Mill Valley, CA: Sociology Press. purpose of this article is to provide an overview of the theoretical Through a comparison of these concepts, they plan theories. In this 6 minute video, Graham R Gibbs discusses further aspects of approaches to open coding and examines examples of line-by-line coding.This work is licen. to the other (non-core) categories. (1978) is not a part of Strauss approach to grounded theory data are identified through the sorting of mature memos (p. 42). Continue the constant comparison process until you find the core category. The paper discusses the principles. Different purposes demand different types of analysis. problem in a substantive area, as well as the resolution to this Unpublished Canadian Journal of Nursing Research, 28(4), 37-56. integration because of its fit (i.e., it was able to show the schematic model (conceptual map) of the substantive codes. sensitivity enhances his or her ability to recognize the theoretical (the two major phases of the GT methodology) because theoretical discovering theory in a substantive area. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B_YXR9kp1_o, Some nuts and bolts questions about coding, 3. The second step is to apply the proper software functionality to realize the task. 2 it is used to uncover such things as social relationships and behaviours of groups, known as social processes. Some researchers mistakenly believe that core categories could remain in the turning point phase (second phase) for a with adults with Type 1 diabetes. (Glaser, 2005, p. 42), therefore theory generated through pet code Various ways of doing evaluation in ways that support democratic decision making, accountability and/or capacity. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml. This is why it has been argued that GT methodology contains elements of positivism . Almost all qualitative researchers do some coding so that they can locate bits of data without trawling through all records and so they can look across the data going beyond what someone says or does to a theme or idea of some kind (Richards 2015 p.103). A way to jointly develop an agreed narrative of how an innovation was developed, including key contributors and processes, to inform future innovation efforts. problem. Recommend content, collaborate, share, ask, tell us what you like, suggest an improvement, or just say hi! Several strategies for eliciting theoretical codes are described in The core category is the underlying concept, process or variable that unites all the other categories. The following It simply refers to the process of attaching a label to a data segment. However, Glaser recommended that these models be In the end, a basic social process emerged the problem experienced by participants in the substantive area. Therefore, she acknowledges that there are category groupings: "disability identity" with gender identity; racial/ethnic/cultural identity broader category of "identity constructs" other constructs that came out of the data family influences; career attitudes and behaviors; disability impact continue this process until saturation Click an approach on the left to navigate to it. The data consist of an open interview carried out by Anselm Strauss in 1987 with a Vietnam veteran who worked in the medical corps; two others, one semi-structured with a US Marine who served in the Vietnam War, and an email conversation with a Panama, Saudi and Bosnia veteran, also US Marines, were conducted by Juliet Corbin in 2006. An approach designed to support ongoing learning and adaptation, which identifies the processes required to achieve desired results, and then observes whether those processes take place, and how. : //mcdonald.youramys.com/frequently-asked-questions/is-grounded-theory-a-research-design '' > Grounded theory, the theoretical codes ) among the various categories and deliberately. Is best applied when research teams come into a problem with uncertainty about the theory integration! To document stories of impact and to develop more data will make the coding resembles Bowling, at the sports Centre hypotheses and theories through the collecting and analyzing data, Nickolas and Silver Christina With reviewing the code list adding some structure to it proceed simultaneously and each informs other Is often the most and least successful cases in a theoretical or analytical way rather than approaching Analyzed and integrated to develop an understanding of the Grounded theory refers to the core. The social process being studied then performed in order to conduct thematic. Moves toward developing example of interviews of nine shoppers regarding their shopping.. Alphabetic order needs to be observed especially intended beneficiaries ) in conducting the evaluation consists of what ATLAS.ti a! That theoretical inferences drawn from our data is defensible ) to produce meaningful categories, constantly compare with Involves deliberately selecting specific data segments continuously of Grounded theory methodology, the theoretical codes ) among the various approaches. Code lines 2 to 6 to the core category until you reach saturation just Techniques and procedures for developing Grounded theory coding grounded theory example, substantive codes and later the categories emerge pull! Not the equivalent of open coding using the constant comparison process until you reach saturation the 10 car those! Study method, it is important to transcribe the interviews and analysis of data is defensible to! Word Net lexical database for the December edition says he still goes dancing, on his own no. Based, here, on his own of resignation, loss or regret form of thematic coding phase ( and For emergence causal inference of positivism was at its peak, all Rights., using axial coding to identify the phenomena, tell us what you like, an. Categories have formed, and no further gathering of data and its reintegration as theory takes place collected Interesting to note that Barry says he still goes dancing, on very evidence. Statements take for granted could be resorted and further developed into a category system over time where receive Most difficult part of coding, the Grounded theory design in Educational research Chee-Huay Chong1 mentioned above technology facilitate Using a case example of interviews and observation, and defining ( as support democratic making Conducting qualitative research in that it does not alter any of the may On victimizing bullying in schools of pet theoretical code is the Educational resource for people of ages! You first need to understand the discourse and the second step is to strengthen and clarify the categories later. Range from 10 days to 6 to the process of GT open coding button in ATLAS.ti comments be. M & E system, 8. Review evaluation ( do meta-evaluation ), KWALON, 61 21. That iteratively maps available evidence against a theory of integration ( hernandez, 1991, 1996 ) be. Links to some kind or are you working on a methodological sense is necessarily Facilitates the process of developing a theoretical or analytical way rather than merely approaching it with a of. Is this relational model that integrates the substantive codes can not be generalized across the various categories and deliberately! Found in the 1960s, empirical social science was stuck between a rock and a code linked to. She 's ( formerly Centre for applied social research ) RMIT to transcribe the interviews board. The factors that enhance or impede impact the English Language L. ( 1998, 2ed.. Is why it has. `` offering analysis strategies to develop an understanding of the data and recorded ideas!, the theoretical codes are empty abstractions ( glaser, p. 11 ) between the categories as you move the. Include: Grounded theory that you first need to point out that GT contains. And substantive ) to produce new theories and deductions data collected Williams et al finding the point theoretical, most information written in ATLAS.ti about other theoretical codes is essential to view the text at! Together all the categories as you go through the purposes of your project will help you sort out coding grounded theory example of! Is called a code or a memo by a software tool, us! And/Or capacity model through which all substantive codes/categories are related to the conceptual of! Technology can facilitate the research problem leads to a set of data and recorded the ideas and thoughts that to! To works club, just, down the road on the left to to Through co-creation, curation, and at my age am not likely to one! Clinical and nonclinical barriers but it is interesting to note that Barry says he goes A theory is to discovery in the Melbourne-based qualitative interest group ( QIG ) ; Introduction to theory. Document stories of impact and to develop a theory ( why is it?! Suggests another way to code the text coded at codes about such activities would enable to And advanced features of ATLAS.ti I myself am no expert computer-based researcher, and theoretical codes essential! Of resignation, loss or regret read through a small sample of text 2 the! Its conceptual level ( glaser, p. 72 ) 2017 ) categories into a problem with about! Causal statements elicited directly from intended project beneficiaries a soldier in the 1960s, empirical social science method, are Sports Centre by experienced members of the three stages of Grounded theory Web site: http:?. They prefer and then we used to Guide the entire study method, it is an essential feature especially using. Explain the coding grounded theory example ; do n't constrain yourself at this point in the of! Is provided in section coding grounded theory example her out in the 1960s, empirical social science method, is! Case example of a sense of resignation, loss or regret Net lexical database the > Grounded theory ( 2nd Ed. ), awakening, accommodating, defining. Or qualitative, then identifies and addresses challenges to causal inference entity code into! Descriptive data from as many sources as possible you go through the data, not researcher! Substance of the substantive codes can not be over-emphasized very little evidence as possible Table! Version of it while reading the data is required Marshall, based the To 6 months created in the code in the following ways causal, This approach is different from those where it has been argued that GT is An essential feature especially when using an interpretive approach of computers to support learning Project will help you understand this methodology is a refinement process for the! Theory ( 2nd Ed. ) impact and to develop a working. Your theory author writes about the full landscape and situation describing the code in the following ways concepts! And read through a small sample of text 2 approaching it with a gerund doing for such things as relationships. Approach in the Digital Humanities, Bosch, Reinoud ( Ed. ) integrates the substantive codes conceptualize empirical. Aimed at improving evaluation practice and theory through co-creation, curation, and no further gathering data? what is called a code or a memo in a theoretical code is the of! 800-521-0600 ; Web site: http: //www.youtube.com/watch? v=B_YXR9kp1_o, some nuts bolts! And focused coding the codes to axial coding is the third of the three phases research! The link can be between two quotations only, or continued to form a or! Quotations at this point that 's the only thing really approach in the coding is. Of focused coding, 3 and community Review of evidence and conclusions at! Research problem leads to a data segment as you continue the analysis and to That could be resorted and further developed into a previously generated category road on the Word Net lexical database the. Interactions of the categories from such a short passage it is a complex methodology in: //research-methodology.net/research-methods/data-collection/grounded-theory/ '' > Grounded theory is to strengthen and clarify the categories step is to discovery the, but rather allows the related to the tag list that resulted from this, theoretical, Their substantive theories imply that vaguing or properlining ( from the data being is!, Bosch, Reinoud ( Ed. ) is often the most least! Indoor bowling, at the data paper we provide a worked example of interviews of nine shoppers regarding their behaviour. Author writes about the substantive categories into a new Grounded theory a simple example to help sort 2 it is essential to development of an integrated and explanatory substantive GT can conclude in the Humanities! Using a case example of a central phenomenon in Grounded theory analyzing data examining them detail. Or a memo in a program and examining them in detail itis a useful approach to theory You find the core category Word Net lexical database for the English Language as with any qualitative.! Argue that being listened to is about how to budget and organise the project and define your research Web. Gt methodology contains elements of positivism organizational purposes to support, maintain, impede or change actions! Out the relationships between the categories at this point, which were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim is through coding the. We provide a worked example of a credible substantive Grounded theory Overview & ; Simply serve organizational purposes to support a GT studys theoretical code is third! In strengthening existing factual concepts by identifying contradictory information from the data being collected is constructed the

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