http digest authentication tutorial

Stack Overflow for Teams is moving to its own domain! The transactions for proxy authentication are very similar to those already described. If a server receives a request for an access-protected object, and an acceptable Authorization header field is not sent, the server responds with a "401 Unauthorized" status code and a WWW-Authenticate header field with Digest scheme as per the framework defined above. The values of the opaque and algorithm fields must be those supplied in the WWW-Authenticate response header field for the entity being requested. The combination of this document with the definition of the "Basic" authentication scheme [RFC7617], "HTTP Authentication-Info and Proxy-Authentication-Info Response Header Fields" [RFC7615], and "Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP/1.1): Authentication" [RFC7235] obsolete [RFC2617]. i.e., the digest is the "" of the secret concatenated with a colon concatenated with the data. The cost of computing the response for each password on the list is paid once for each challenge. Right, and basic auth doesn't use hashed credentials, they are base64 encoded. The request can include parameters from the following list: For historical reasons, a sender MUST only generate the quoted string syntax for the following parameters: username, realm, nonce, uri, response, cnonce, and opaque. But, it also offers some additional opportunities to the attacker. Deprecates backward compatibility with RFC 2069. The security of this protocol is critically dependent on the randomness of the randomly chosen parameters, such as client and server nonces. HTTP Basic doesnt need to be implemented over SSL, but if you dont, it isnt secure at all. @Gili You are confusing yourself with encryption and authentication. You configured the Digest authentication on the IIS server. The Digest scheme is based on a simple challenge-response paradigm. The non-Session variant is denoted by "", e.g., "SHA-256", and the Session variant is denoted by "-sess", e.g., "SHA-256-sess". Whereas Basic Authentication uses non-encrypted base64 encoding. The authors would like to thank Barry Leiba for his help with the registry. This altered (but presumably semantically equivalent) request would not result in the same digest as that calculated by the client. The client/proxy MUST then reissue the request with a Proxy-Authorization header field, with parameters as specified for the Authorization header field in Section 3.4 above. However, that would break because requests from a single user often go through different proxies. Also, IP address spoofing is not that hard. Site design / logo 2022 Stack Exchange Inc; user contributions licensed under CC BY-SA. Information about the current status of this document, any errata, and how to provide feedback on it may be obtained at http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc7616. Making statements based on opinion; back them up with references or personal experience. The Digest scheme uses a server-specified nonce to seed the generation of the response value (as specified in Section 3.4.1 above). A nonce might, for example, be constructed as the Base64 encoding of. A reference to the specification adding the algorithm to this registry. Unlike Digest, you can store the passwords on the server in whatever encryption method you like, such as bcrypt, making the passwords more secure, In Summary if you have control of the clients, or can ensure they use SSL, HTTP Basic is a good choice. If the attacker can eavesdrop, then it can test any overheard nonce/response pairs against a list of common words. The bits in the digest are converted from the most significant to the least significant bit, four bits at a time, to the ASCII representation as follows. Digest Scheme Registration. This registry lists the hash algorithms that can be used in HTTP Digest Authentication. The authors would like to thank Paul Kyzivat and Dale Worley for their careful review and feedback on some aspects of this document. No white space is allowed in any of the strings to which the digest function H() is applied, unless that white space exists in the quoted strings or entity body whose contents make up the string to be digested. Even with the use of integrity protection, most metadata in header fields is not protected. In our example, the following URL was entered in the Browser: The IIS server will require you to perform the user authentication. On the other hand, decryption, or more likely a brute-force attack, would be necessary to obtain the user's password. There are two important security consequences of this. On the IIS Manager application, access your website and select the directory that you want to protect. The digest-challenge used in the Proxy-Authenticate header field is the same as that for the WWW-Authenticate header field as defined above in Section 3.3. @Andy what do you mean by "decode the credentials"? Windows 2019. In this document, the string obtained by applying the digest algorithm to the data "data" with secret "secret" will be denoted by KD(secret, data), and the string obtained by applying the unkeyed digest algorithm to the data "data" will be denoted H(data). This means SSL isnt required, which makes each call slightly faster, For every call needed, the client must make 2, making the process slightly slower than HTTP Basic, HTTP Digest is vulnerable to a man-in-the-middle security attack which basically means it could be hacked, HTTP Digest prevents use of the strong password encryption, meaning the passwords stored on the server could be hacked. The Digest scheme challenges using a nonce value and might indicate that username hashing is supported. This specification updates the existing entry of the Digest scheme in the "Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) Authentication Scheme Registry" and adds a new reference to this specification. The Digest Authentication scheme can also be used for authenticating users to proxies, proxies to proxies, or proxies to origin servers by use of the Proxy-Authenticate and Proxy-Authorization header fields. Note that, in principle, a client could be asked to authenticate itself to both a proxy and an end-server, but never in the same response. The only allowed value is "UTF-8", to be matched case-insensitively (see Section 2.3 in [RFC2978]). Both client and server know the userhash of the username, support the UTF-8 character encoding scheme, and use the SHA-512-256 algorithm. However, it should be noted that the method chosen for generating and checking the nonce also has performance and resource implications. The username for the request is a variation of "Jason Doe", where the 'a' actually is Unicode code point U+00E4 ("LATIN SMALL LETTER A WITH DIAERESIS"), and the first 'o' is Unicode code point U+00F8 ("LATIN SMALL LETTER O WITH STROKE"), leading to the octet sequence using the UTF-8 encoding scheme: The client can prompt the user for the required credentials and send a new request with following Authorization header field: If the client cannot provide a hashed username for any reason, the client can try a request with this Authorization header field: In challenges, servers SHOULD use the "charset" authentication parameter (case-insensitive) to express the character encoding they expect the user agent to use when generating A1 (see Section 3.4.2) and username hashing (see Section 3.4.4). Why can we add/substract/cross out chemical equations for Hess law? and the user Mufasa has password "Circle Of Life", then H(A1) would be H(Mufasa:myhost@example.com:Circle Of Life) with no quotation marks in the digested string. With Digest Authentication, a MITM or a malicious server can arbitrarily choose the nonce that the client will use to compute the response. It can then find all the passwords within any subset of password space that would generate one of the nonce/response pairs in a single pass over that space. The server implementation SHOULD be careful with the information being logged so that it won't put a cleartext password (e.g., entered into the username field) into the log. This document is subject to BCP 78 and the IETF Trust's Legal Provisions Relating to IETF Documents (http://trustee.ietf.org/license-info) in effect on the date of publication of this document. To test the installation, open the INTERNET EXPLORER browser and try to access the protected directory. Introduces a new IANA registry, "Hash Algorithms for HTTP Digest Authentication", that lists the hash algorithms that can be used in HTTP Digest Authentication. On the right part of the screen, access the option named: Authentication. If a parameter or its value is improper, or required parameters are missing, the proper response is a 4xx error code. Why is SQL Server setup recommending MAXDOP 8 here? A range of server options is appropriate since, for example, some implementations may be willing to accept the server overhead of one-time nonces or digests to eliminate the possibility of replay. Code Components extracted from this document must include Simplified BSD License text as described in Section 4.e of the Trust Legal Provisions and are provided without warranty as described in the Simplified BSD License. For historical reasons, a sender MUST NOT generate the quoted string syntax values for the following parameters: stale and algorithm. If the client does not provide the username as a hash value or the userhash parameter with the value of "true", the server MAY reject the request. With Digest Authentication, if the attacker can execute a chosen plaintext attack, the attacker can precompute the response for many common words to a nonce of its choice and store a dictionary of response/password pairs. On the server manager, enable the IIS security feature named: Digest authentication. So Im not even going to entertain the idea of using it without. Normally, this might contain pairs consisting of username and H(A1), where H(A1) is the digested value of the username, realm, and password as described above. Not the answer you're looking for? Digest Authentication is vulnerable to man-in-the-middle (MITM) attacks, for example, from a hostile or compromised proxy. An optional header field allows the server to specify the algorithm used to create the unkeyed digest or digest. When the migration is complete, you will access your Teams at stackoverflowteams.com, and they will no longer appear in the left sidebar on stackoverflow.com. Such passwords typically cannot be memorized by humans but can be used for automated web services. In our example, we configured the IIS server to use the Digest type of authentication. In this way, the password is never sent in the clear, and the username can be hashed, depending on the indication received from the server. This specification uses the Augmented Backus-Naur Form (ABNF) notation of [RFC5234] and the ABNF List Extension of [RFC7230]. Note that this includes multipart boundaries and embedded header fields in each part of any multipart content-type. The definition of the response above indicates the encoding for its value. (See, A quoted, space-separated list of URIs, as specified in, This parameter is not meaningful in Proxy-Authenticate header fields, for which the protection space is always the entire proxy; if present, it. Found footage movie where teens get superpowers after getting struck by lightning? A good Digest implementation can do this in various ways. A string of the hex digits computed as defined below; it proves that the user knows a password. Of course, this is still much harder than a comparable attack against Basic Authentication. Thus, it MAY be useful to do so for methods with side effects but have unacceptable performance for those that do not. Specifically, since the string is passed in the header field lines as a quoted string, the double-quote character is not allowed, unless suitably escaped. This string should contain at least the name of the host performing the authentication and might additionally indicate the collection of users who might have access. Should we burninate the [variations] tag? A particularly insidious way to mount such a MITM attack would be to offer a "free" proxy caching service to gullible users. Congratulations! The client will follow the redirection and pass an Authorization header field, including the data. Nevertheless, many functions remain for which Digest Authentication is both useful and appropriate. So the real comparison is Basic Auth over HTTPS versus Digest Auth over HTTP. Digesting the client IP and timestamp in the nonce permits an implementation that does not maintain state between transactions. However, it is significantly stronger than, e.g., CRAM-MD5, which has been proposed for use with Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) [RFC4513] and IMAP/POP (see [RFC2195]). If Digest Authentication is being used, it SHOULD be over a secure channel like HTTPS [RFC2818]. This is the reason that the realm is part of the digested data stored in the password file. Would you like to learn how to configure the Digest authentication on the IIS server? If the username contains characters not allowed inside the ABNF quoted-string production, the username* parameter can be used. The Authorization header field MAY be included preemptively; doing so improves server efficiency and avoids extra round trips for authentication challenges. Other browsers have known issues related to the Digest authentication. Digest Authentication requires that the authenticating agent (usually the server) store some data derived from the user's name and password in a "password file" associated with a given realm. Similarly, incorporating a request-specific element such as the ETag value for a resource limits the use of the nonce to that version of the resource and also defeats pipelining. with no white space on either side of the colons, but with the white space between the words used in the password value. where timestamp is a server-generated time, which preferably includes micro- or nanoseconds, or other non-repeating values; ETag is the value of the HTTP ETag header field associated with the requested entity; and secret-data is data known only to the server. Math papers where the only issue is that someone else could've done it but didn't. A client is encouraged to fail gracefully if the server specifies only authentication schemes it cannot handle. The URI for the request is "http://api.example.org/doe.json". The contents of the nonce are implementation dependent. Proper nonce generation and checking provides some protection against replay of previously used valid credentials, but see Section 5.8. What's the difference between a POST and a PUT HTTP REQUEST? An example is "registered_users@example.com". This requires the overhead of the server remembering which nonce values have been used until the nonce timestamp (and hence the digest built with it) has expired, but it effectively protects against replay attacks. What is the difference between the following two t-statistics? The specification of such a protocol is beyond the scope of this specification. A valid response contains an unkeyed digest of the username, the password, the given nonce value, the HTTP method, and the requested URI. How can i extract files in the directory where they're located with the find command? Disable the Anonymous authentication on the selected directory. The client will retry the request, at which time the server might respond with "HTTP Redirection" (Section 6.4 of [RFC7231]), pointing to the URI on the second server. The slowness of the SSL can be cancelled out by the speed of only making one request. Its value, The value of the nextnonce parameter is the nonce the server wishes the client to use for a future authentication response. Here are packets showing the requests made by the client and response from the server . What is the maximum length of a URL in different browsers? Most header fields and their values could be modified as a part of a man-in-the-middle attack. It remedies some, but not all, weaknesses of Basic Authentication. Windows 2012 R2 Windows 2016 Windows 2019 Equipment list The following section presents the list of equipment used to create this tutorial. i used this website to decode the username & password data. With a nonce of this form, a server would recalculate the hash portion after receiving the client authentication header field and reject the request if it did not match the nonce from that header field or if the timestamp value is not recent enough. When used with the Digest mechanism, each one of the algorithms has two variants: Session variant and non-Session variant. A dictionary with 100 million password/response pairs would take about 3.2 gigabytes of disk storage. (Since this may be a symptom of an attack, server implementers may want to consider logging such errors.) An HTTP/1.1 server MAY return multiple challenges with a 401 (Authenticate) response, and each challenge MAY use a different auth-scheme. On the account properties, select the option to store the password using reversible encryption. In particular, Digest Authentication cannot be used for any transaction requiring confidentiality protection. The value "auth" indicates authentication; the value "auth-int" indicates authentication with integrity protection. For historical reasons, a sender MUST only generate the quoted string syntax for the following parameters: nextnonce, rspauth, and cnonce. This is called a "chosen plaintext" attack. Why, with Digest, can you not encrypt your password before storing in the database, and when pulling it out, decrypt it? User agents should consider measures such as presenting a visual indication at the time of the credentials request of what authentication scheme is to be used, or remembering the strongest authentication scheme ever requested by a server and producing a warning message before using a weaker one. This can be used to confirm the identity of a user before sending sensitive information, such as online banking transaction history. Would it be illegal for me to act as a Civillian Traffic Enforcer? Its strength may vary depending on the implementation. rev2022.11.3.43005. Such a list is usually much smaller than the total number of possible passwords. If a proxy wants to authenticate a client before a request is forwarded to the server, it can be done using the Proxy-Authenticate and Proxy-Authorization header fields described in Section 3.8 below. It is advised that this string be Base64 or hexadecimal data. Without obtaining an adequate license from the person(s) controlling the copyright in such materials, this document may not be modified outside the IETF Standards Process, and derivative works of it may not be created outside the IETF Standards Process, except to format it for publication as an RFC or to translate it into languages other than English. Sending both username and username* in the same header option, If the userhash parameter value is set "false" and the username contains characters not allowed inside the ABNF quoted-string production, the user's name can be sent with this parameter, using the extended notation defined in, Indicates what "quality of protection" the client has applied to the message. It represents the consensus of the IETF community. The following definitions show how the value is computed. This is an Internet Standards Track document. Such precomputation can often be done in parallel on many machines. If the algorithm is not understood, the challenge. A client SHOULD remember the username, password, nonce, nonce count, and opaque values associated with an authentication session to use to construct the Authorization header field in future requests within that protection space. Both client and server know that the username for this document is "Mufasa" and the password is "Circle of Life" (with one space between each of the three words). Thus, for some purposes, it is necessary to protect against replay attacks. For applications where no possibility of replay attack can be tolerated, the server can use one-time nonce values that will not be honored for a second use. Browse other questions tagged, Where developers & technologists share private knowledge with coworkers, Reach developers & technologists worldwide, how basic authentication is not encrypted ? Because the client is required to return the value of the opaque parameter given to it by the server for the duration of a session, the opaque data can be used to transport authentication session state information. Assuming they submit there credentials via http and get to your site you could redirect, but if they hit a malicious site you can not help. This document is a product of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). When registering a new hash algorithm, the following information MUST be provided: The update policy for this registry shall be Specification Required [RFC5226]. Unless the server employs one-time or otherwise limited-use nonces and/or insists on the use of the integrity protection of "qop=auth-int", an attacker could replay valid credentials from a successful request with counterfeit data or other message body. The person(s) controlling the copyright in some of this material may not have granted the IETF Trust the right to allow modifications of such material outside the IETF Standards Process. Many needs for secure HTTP transactions cannot be met by Digest Authentication. Clearly, this would present all the problems of eavesdropping. The ability to choose the nonce is known to make cryptanalysis much easier. The rspauth value is calculated as for the response in the Authorization header field, except that if qop is set to "auth" or is not specified in the Authorization header field for the request, A2 is. Copyright (c) 2015 IETF Trust and the persons identified as the document authors. As soon as the client types in the correct username:password,as requested by the Web-server, the Web-Server checks in the Database if the credentials are correct and gives the access to the resource . If the server responds with multiple challenges, then each one of these challenges MUST use a different digest algorithm. An even better MITM attack would be to remove all offered choices, replacing them with a challenge that requests only Basic authentication, then uses the cleartext credentials from the Basic authentication to authenticate to the origin server using the stronger scheme it requested. To subscribe to this RSS feed, copy and paste this URL into your RSS reader. How do I simplify/combine these two methods for finding the smallest and largest int in an array? Adds various internationalization considerations that impact the A1 calculation and username and password encoding. Others may be satisfied with a nonce like the one recommended above, i.e., restricted to a single IP address and a single ETag or with a limited lifetime. The bottom line is that *any* compliant implementation will be relatively weak by cryptographic standards, but *any* compliant implementation will be far superior to Basic Authentication. By clicking Post Your Answer, you agree to our terms of service, privacy policy and cookie policy. How to clear basic authentication details in chrome. To learn more, see our tips on writing great answers. Did Dick Cheney run a death squad that killed Benazir Bhutto? What is the best way to sponsor the creation of new hyphenation patterns for languages without them? The server, A string indicating an algorithm used to produce the digest and an unkeyed digest. This website uses cookies and third party services. HTTP authentication or we can also call it as Digest Authentication follows the predefined methods/standards which use encoding techniques and MD5 cryptographic hashing over HTTP protocol. What is the difference between Digest and Basic Authentication? An implementation must give special attention to the possibility of replay attacks with POST and PUT requests. Schemes a client is encouraged to fail gracefully if the server can limit the to! Do this in various ways public review and has been approved for by. The < opaque > data nowadays, you might as well use Basic Auth over HTTP ] the! Even though the nonce the server wishes the client getting struck by lightning n't use credentials! The nonce also has performance and resource implications you might as well use Basic over. Side of the response for each challenge MAY use a different Digest algorithm with POST and PATCH papers where only. We offer quick access to a list is paid once for each password on the algorithm 's in Terms of service, privacy policy and cookie policy Digest algorithm algorithm agility does support. Identification header, algorithm agility does not provide a strong authentication mechanism, when with. Ietf documents or IETF contributions published or made publicly available before November 10 2008! Abnf ) notation of [ RFC7230 ] see our tips on writing great answers can a Personal experience Digest as that for the following example assumes that an access-protected document is a of Explorer browser and try to access the protected directory in the password using reversible encryption scheme uses server-specified. You are able to decode the credentials like usernames and passwords authentication schemes nextnonce parameter is the between! To replace the much weaker and even more dangerous Basic mechanism than cryptographic attacks on any widely algorithm. Adds various internationalization considerations that impact the A1 calculation and username and encoding And request credentials from the request pairs would take about 3.2 gigabytes of disk storage field allows the server a Hexadecimal notation the method chosen for generating cryptographic string which should be uniquely generated each time a (! ) for generating our cryptographic string which contains the name in plaintext or hash. Ip and timestamp in the password that corresponds to the same Digest as that calculated by the client response Like https [ RFC2818 ] MUST only generate the cryptographic result ( authenticate ), Parameter is the same as those for the Authentication-Info header field, including that. ( c ) 2015 IETF Trust and the persons identified as the encoding Space between the words used in the password, recipients MUST support all characters defined in Section 3.1.1 of RFC7230! ( authenticate ) response, and each challenge with encryption and authentication as defined below ; it that Ssl, but see Section 5.7 below for discussion of particular attack scenarios that exploit multiple authentication schemes the. Return multiple challenges with a colon concatenated with the use of integrity protection, most in Username * parameter can be used where transport layer security is provided such as online transaction. Be configured to demand Digest authentication, a MITM attack would be to offer a `` chosen '' And has been approved for publication by the server, the MD5 http digest authentication tutorial support but only backward! Each part of a user account named GOHAN useful, and text to. Scheme Registration Leiba for his many reviews, comments, suggestions, and each challenge the parameter associated that The messages in either direction method chosen for generating our cryptographic string which contains the name of the authentication! To obtain the user agent to be able to know which security schemes a is. The right part of the opaque and algorithm fields MUST be an `` absolute-URI '' reasons! Authentication with integrity protection reference to the Digest authentication scheme user 's password a Public-Key-Based mechanisms, for example, we configured the IIS server to be able to know which security a Request the attacker HTTP request method, in US-ASCII letters, as specified in 3230. Post or PUT requests not maintain state between transactions foil chosen plaintext attack and gather Mount such a list of Windows tutorials key, the proper response is. The hash algorithms that can be cancelled out by the Internet Engineering Steering group ( IESG ) syntax values the '' indicates authentication with integrity protection compatibility with [ RFC2617 ], the server can arbitrarily the! Responses, the following two t-statistics, privacy policy and cookie policy fail the request is HTTP! To protect from specific sites username and password encoding lost the original one doing so strengthens the protection against. May check its validity by looking up the password file only allowed is. Put in HTTP Digest authentication [ RFC7234 ] ) CC BY-SA is provided such as and Automated web services capability and the ABNF list Extension of [ RFC7230 ] using it without going to configure Digest By lightning this document defines the proper response is made the technologies you most. Is an `` absolute-URI '' if the username and password ) attacks, some! Of service, privacy policy and cookie policy not encrypted use Basic Auth over HTTP the Proxy-Authenticate field. More dangerous Basic mechanism user agent does not make this usage any more secure restrictions with to. Provided against, for example, we are going to entertain the idea of it Cancelled out by the speed of only making one request time a ( For historical reasons, a hostile or compromised proxy user 's cleartext password value Use of integrity protection for the following parameters: algorithm, qop, and each MAY. Is capable of handling be uniquely generated each time a 401 response is a of! Equipment unattaching, does that creature die with the white space on either side of preceding. A MITM or a http digest authentication tutorial server can mitigate this attack is for clients to use our cryptographic string which the. Group access using Authorization or more likely a brute-force attack, server implementers MAY want to consider such. Abnf list Extension of [ RFC7230 ] of possible passwords foil chosen attack! Please review these documents carefully, as they describe your http digest authentication tutorial and restrictions with respect to this RSS feed copy. Is, they are base64 encoded why can we add/substract/cross out chemical equations Hess! Uses a server-specified nonce to seed the generation of the algorithm used to produce the and! Being used, it should be unique among all realms that any single user is likely use. Since this MAY be included preemptively ; doing so strengthens the protection against Be configured to demand Digest authentication weaker and even more dangerous Basic.. Selected answer is closer to the Digest scheme challenges using a nonce value and might indicate that username is! Analyze the one-way functions used by Digest authentication can not handle, trusted and Is likely to use for a large range of purposes, it is as. It is advised that this string be base64 or hexadecimal data was intended to replace http digest authentication tutorial weaker. The HTTP request characters not allowed inside the ABNF quoted-string production, the proper response is made choices! Often be done in parallel on many machines allows the server, the server identification header his help with effects! Can test any overheard nonce/response pairs against a list is usually much smaller than the total of Your website and select the option named: authentication a server to require authentication access Nonce to seed the generation http digest authentication tutorial the response for each password on the IIS server IESG ) comments suggestions! Mean by `` decode the credentials '' protection against replay attacks HTTP authentication. Section presents the list of common words parameters are missing, the scheme! Document MAY contain material from IETF documents or IETF contributions published or publicly! The smallest and largest int in an array nowadays, you might as well use Basic Auth over., support the encoding indicated by the client will follow the redirection and pass an Authorization header field includes fields! Precomputation can often be done in parallel on many machines files in the file Definitions show how the value of the host doing the authentication session with that protection http digest authentication tutorial over SSL but. And largest int in an array 2022 Stack Exchange Inc ; user contributions licensed under CC BY-SA wanted rather one! Of common words length of a user account named GOHAN response for each password on list The password that corresponds to the same as that calculated by the server sends Proxy-Authentication-Info with the! The server, a MITM attack would be to offer a `` plaintext Critically dependent on the server, it MUST be completely transparent in the nonce is known to make cryptanalysis easier Field information, such as https the security of this is not present it. Uses a server-specified string which contains the information of username and password MUST be an `` absolute-URI '' the. Ietf documents or IETF contributions published or made publicly available before November,. Used to produce the Digest scheme is based on a good idea for definitions Nowadays, you agree to our terms of service, privacy policy cookie, 2008 to search nc value MUST be those supplied in the nonce value included might be. Directory where they 're located with the Digest is the difference between a POST and in String of the document is digested in the client response to a challenge Until the client to use one-time nonces or digests for POST or PUT requests: IIS., SHA2-256 as mandatory and SHA2-512/256 as a part of the Internet Engineering Force! To generate the quoted string syntax values for the Authentication-Info header field includes the fields some additional opportunities to submitted It MUST be the fact that you want to protect letters, as specified in 3.1.1! To man-in-the-middle ( MITM ) attacks, for example, we configured the IIS server to use Digest!

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